" Do you have communication anxiety or fear of speaking in public?  Then you may be considered to have high levels of communication apprehension.  This is common among 20 percent of people.  But there is a solution if you want to overcome your fear.  So if you are a student or someone who is required to speak in public or if you have fear speaking in certain social settings, read on.  The following information may possibly clarify what you are unsure about and help you with your apprehension.
 
 

Communication Apprehension...

What is it, and what are the consequences?

What are the causes, and how does it develop?

Self tests to rate your level of apprehension.

How can CA be prevented or reduced?

References.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

What is it, and what are the consequences?

Communication apprehension (CA) has been defined as an "individual level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons" (McCroskey, 1977).

CA can also be classified as "the avoidance of non participation in, and subsequent withdrawal from communication, due to inadequate communication skills... a general unwillingness to communicate based on fear and anxiety; or as an avoidance due to inadequate communication skills" (Stacks & Stone, 1984).

Ca can be a potential barrier to a student's success and as well effect their self-esteem and attitude toward self (Blatzer, 1997).  It is related to both negative characteristics and attitude about self, because our perception of ourselves greatly influences the image we project to others and our level of comfort when interacting with others (Blatzer, 1997).

Watson and Bossley (1995) state that 20 percent of people face some type of communication anxiety.  We also know that many highly apprehensive students choose to drop out of school rather then face the fear of communication (Ericson & Gardner, 1992). Students with high CA tend to have a higher drop out rate then students with low levels (McCroskey, Booth-Butterfield, & Payne, 1989: 100).  This intense fear also leads to students selecting college majors where they foresee less time communicating with less threatening audiences (Ericson & Gardner, 1992).  A high CA student is also "less likely to be involved in campus activities, less likely to communicate with peers, advisors, counselors, or professors who could offer social comfort and academic assistance" (McCroskey, Booth-Butterfield, & Payne, 1989).  Some students go as far as sitting in the back of the classroom or a place where they will be inconspicuous or not noticed and not have to participate, or try to withdraw from communication by saying that which is only absolutely necessary when called upon (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).

"Apart from a severe feeling of discomfort a person with high levels of CA experiences when communicating, certain physiological effects could also be present like rapid beating of the heart, some shakiness, a dry mouth and increased perspiration (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  People with high CA tend to avoid communication where possible as a result of their fear or anxiety and many people with high CA could exhibit this by stuttering when called upon or pretending not to know the answer to a question put to them (Richmond & McCroskey, 1989: 6061).

Socially people with high levels of CA are perceived as less popular or desirable than people with lower levels of CA (McCroskey, 1997b; Richmond, Beatty, & Dyba, 1985) and often feel obligated to conform to request that they would rather resist (Watson, Monroe, & Atterstrom, 1984).  This psychologically affects the apprehensive student or person usually resulting in feelings of inhibition and inadequateness, in turn making it difficult to participate actively in social situations (Watson et al., 1984).  This apprehension has also been proven to hurt apprehensive students academically.  Besides dropouts mentioned earlier Bourhis and Allen (1992) did a meta-analysis of 23 manuscripts which revealed a relationship between CA and measures of cognitive performance such as IQ, GPA, course and assignment grades, and standardized tests.

CA could also just simply be fear of public speaking, also classified as stage fright or commonly known as butterflies in the stomach (Standard Deviants TV, Online).

According to Richmond and McCroskey (1989: 49-51) there are four distinct categories of CA.  The first is called traitlike CA "a relatively enduring personality type orientation towards a given mode of communication across a wide variety of contexts" (McCroskey, 1984; 16).  The second is context-based CA which is an anxiety experienced by people in a certain context (like a fear of public speaking) "a relatively enduring personality type orientation towards communication in a given context" (McCroskey, 1984; 16).  The third distinction is called audience-based CA which is based on the situation one is in rather then one person to another (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  Fear is experienced when communicating with a specific individual or group of individuals across time and an example might be the talking of an employee to the boss or students to teachers (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  Audience-based CA is "a relatively enduring orientation towards communication with a given person or group of people" (McCroskey, 1984; 17).  The fourth distinction is situational CA which is experienced only with a given individual or group in a single situation, and an example here would be a student who is suspected of cheating in a test and called by the teacher (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  This could cause CA for that situation - "a transitory orientation towards communication with a given person or group of people (McCroskey, 1984; 17).

CA can also result in shyness and reticence which affect the social skills necessary for children to make friends (Holbrook, 1987).  The CA students in the classroom may also be regarded as "perfect" because they are not discipline problems but often the CA students lack of response or participation has a negative, spiraling affect - - they are perceived as less capable, and are thus called on less frequently in class discussion and their lack of enthusiasm tends to limit the teacher's attention to them, further reinforcing their own self evaluation (Richmond, 1984, Friedman, 1980).

So the apparent consequences of CA are emotional, educational, and social (Holbrook, 1987).

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What are the causes, and how does it develop?

There are a number of causes that could lead to CA.  I will touch upon a few reasons why some people or students may be apprehensive.

Heredity

One theory is that CA is inherited.  Social biologists have determined that infants already differ with regard to their "sociability" and this could influence their interaction with their environment and eventually lead to lower or higher levels of CA (McCroskey, 1984: 23-24).  "Estimates are that 10 to 15 percent of babies studied were born apprehensive, as demonstrated by their crying when being exposed to unfamiliar things" (Berko, Wolvin, & Wolvin, 1998, p. 45).

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is understood as a cause of CA.  Research indicates that children who engage in positive communication with their parents and receive praise for their efforts, tend to sustain those patterns of interaction in hopes of eliciting consequent affirmative responses (Daly & McCroskey, 1984: Fitzpatrick & Vangelisti, 1995, McCroskey, 1977b).  And children who are punished for communication eventually develop high levels of CA and withdraw from communication.  McCroskey (1984: 25-30) also states that if people in a child's environment don't act according to a consistent pattern in regards to rewards and punishment for the same behavior or this behavior is even sometimes ignored, the child gets confused which leads to learned helplessness and negative expectations, which are according to McCroskey (1984: 25) the foundational components of CA.

Drinkwater and Vreken (1997) site a good example of reinforcement where a student is making an attempt to deliver a speech in his/her second language.  This person may not be very fluent in this language and get laughed at by classmates for a few mistakes or even punished (marks subtracted) by the teacher.  This negative reinforcement may lead to high levels of CA.  Then, if the child is one day rewarded when speaking to his mother, like being encouraged to say more and the next day told to keep quiet, he will get confused and later resort to learned helplessness (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).

Inadequate skill development

Inadequate skill development is also another explanation for CA.  People with high levels of CA tend to avoid communication and communicate all the less with the result that they develop inadequate communication skills (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  "The absence of these skills increases levels of CA again - a vicious circle" (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  Effective communication skill may not have developed because children's parents seldom converse with them or they have not had much opportunity to interact with peers (Brophy, 1996).  This circumstance may explain some of the shyness seen in kindergarten and first grade or children starting school for the first time or changing schools may exhibit school phobia (Brophy, 1996).

Absence of adequate role models

Ca may develop due to the absence of adequate role models.  Children try to emulate the communication they observe from the people in their environment, and if a child has parents and/or teachers who have high levels of CA who don't communicate they may follow suit (Drinkwater & Vreken, 1997).  This somewhat relates to the environment which may also cause CA because children tend to imitate the behavior of others as they learn to communicate (Hutchinson & Neuliep, 1993).

Social Anxiety

Social anxiety can also develop as an ongoing reaction to repeated failure, mistreatment, or rejection from adults or peers (Brophy, 1996).  Some students adjust well and show good peer group adjustment and ability to interact socially with the teacher, but they might display CA when they are asked to answer academic questions, perform  in public, or engage in an activity that they know will be evaluated (Brophy, 1996).

Social Conditioning

CA may develop or spring from social conditioning (Berko, Wolvin, & Wolvin, 1998, p. 45).  The individual's environment causes that point to move toward an extreme or toward the mean with the accumulation of additional communicative experiences (Gilpin, 1999).

Embarrassment

One last factor I will discuss which relates to CA is embarrassment.  The reason most people get anxious when required to speak to a group is that they are afraid of looking foolish or stupid in front of many of their peers and important people (Kurtis, 2000).  Kurtus (2000) says the fear of their mind going blank or their lack of speaking skills will lower the opinion others have of them.  This could ultimately lead to embarrassment.

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Self tests to rate your level of apprehension.

The following are a few self tests to rate your level of communication apprehension:
 
 

Directions:  This instrument is composed of 24 statements concerning your feelings about communication with other people.  Please indicate in the space provided the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree, (5) strongly disagree with each statement.  There are no right or wrong answers.  Many of the statements are similar to other statements.  Do not be concerned about this.  Work quickly, just record your first impression.

_______ 1. I dislike participating in group discussions.
_______ 2. Generally, I am comfortable while participating in a group discussion.
_______ 3. I am tense and nervous while participating in group discussions.
_______ 4. I like to get involved in group discussion.
_______ 5. Engaging in a group discussion with new people makes me tense and nervous.
_______ 6. I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions.
_______ 7. Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in a meeting.
_______ 8. Usually I am calm and relaxed while participating in meetings.
_______ 9. I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to express an opinion at a meeting.
_______10. I am afraid to express myself at meetings.
_______11. Communicating at meetings usually makes me uncomfortable.
_______12. I am very relaxed when answering questions at a meeting.
_______13. While participating in a conversation with a new acquaintance, I feel very nervous.
_______14. I have no fear of speaking up in conversations.
_______15. Ordinarily I am very tense and nervous in conversations.
_______16. Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations.
_______17. While conversing with a new acquaintance, I feel very relaxed.
_______18. I'm afraid to speak up in conversations.
_______19. I have no fear of giving a speech.
_______20. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech.
_______21. I feel relaxed while giving a speech.
_______22. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech.
_______23. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence.
_______24. While giving a speech I get so nervous, I forget facts I really know.

Scoring:

Group           = 18 - (1) + (2) - (3) + (4) - (5) + (6)
Meeting       = 18 - (7) + (8) + (9) - (10) - (11) + (12)
Dyadic        = 18 - (13) + (14) - (15) + (16) + (17) - (18)
Public          = 18 + (19) - (20) + (22) + (23) - (24)
Overall CA = Group + Meeting + Dyadic + Public

Scores may range from 24 to 120.  Scores above 72 indicate that you are more apprehensive about communication than the average person.  Scores above 85 indicate a very high level of communication apprehension.  Scores below 59 indicate a very low level of apprehension.  These extreme scores (below 59 and above 85) are generally outside the norm.  They suggest that the degree of apprehension you may experience in any given situation may not be associated with a realistic response to that communication situation.  The higher the score you obtain, the more apprehension you feel.  Scores on context can range from a low of 6 to a high of 30.  Any score above 18 indicates some degree of apprehension.  For example, if you score above 18 for the public speaking context, you are like the overwhelming majority of Americans.

Directions: The following fourteen statements refer to talking with other people.  If the statement describes you very well, circle "Yes."  If it somewhat describes you, circle "yes."  If you are not sure whether it describes you or not, or if you do not understand the statement, circle "?."  If the statement is a poor description of you, circle "no."  If the statement is a very poor description of you, circle "No."  There are no right or wrong answers.  Work quickly; record your first impression.

Yes    yes    ?    no    No    1. I am a shy person.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    2. Other people think I talk a lot.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    3. I am a very talkative person.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    4. Other people think I am shy.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    5. I talk a lot.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    6. I tend to be very quiet in class.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    7. I don't talk much.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    8. I talk more than most people.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    9. I am a quiet person.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    10. I talk more in a small group (3-6 people) than other people do.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    11. Most people talk more than I do.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    12. Other people think I am very quiet.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    13. I talk more in class than most people do.
Yes    yes    ?    no    No    14. Most people are more shy than I am.

Scoring: Yes = 1, yes = 2, ? = 3, no = 4, No = 5.

Score your responses as follows:
1. Add the scores for items 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, and 12.
2. Add the scores for items 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 13, and 14.
3. Complete the following formula: Shyness = 42 - (total from step 1) + (total from step 2).

Scores above 52 = high shyness; scores below 32 = low shyness

Directions: The following are 12 situations in which you might need to communicate. People's abilities to communicate effectively vary greatly, and sometimes a person is more competent to communicate in one situation than in another.  Indicate how competent you believe you are to communicate in each of the following situations.  Indicate in the space provided to the left of each number what your estimated competence is.  Presume 0 = completely incompetent and 100 = competent.

_____ 1. Present a talk to a group of strangers.
_____ 2. Talk with an acquaintance.
_____ 3. Talk in a large meeting of friends.
_____ 4. Talk in a small group of strangers.
_____ 5. Talk with a friend.
_____ 6. Talk in a large meeting of acquaintances.
_____ 7. Talk with a stranger.
_____ 8. Present talk to group of friends.
_____ 9. Talk in a small group of friends.
_____ 10. Talk in a large meeting of strangers.
_____ 11. Talk in a small group of friends.
_____ 12. Present a talk to a group of acquaintances.

Scoring: To compute the sub scores, add the percentages for the items indicated and divide the total by the number indicated below.

Public                    1 + 8 + 12; divided by 3.
Meeting                3 + 6 + 10; divided by 3.
Group                   4 + 9 + 11; divided by 3.
Dyad                   2 + 5 + 7; divided by 3.
Stranger              1 + 4 + 7 + 10; divided by 4.
Acquaintance     2 + 6 + 9 + 12; divided by 4.
Friend                 3 + 5 + 8 + 11; divided by 4.

To compute the total score, add the sub scores for Stranger, Acquaintance, and Friend.  Then divide that total by 3.  Scores above 87 = high self perceived communication competence, scores below 59 = low self perceived communication competence.

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How Can CA be prevented or reduced?

The school environment plays a vital role n the prevention of CA (Holbrook, 1987).  Bond (1984) proposes a four phase strategy:

1. Require teachers in training to take more than an introductory course in oral communication (e. g., a course aimed at understanding the communication behaviors of students).

2. Create basic communication courses in the earlier elementary grades.

3. Provide specialized treatment for quiet/shy students on a voluntary basis.

4. Develop classroom activities that encourage oral communication.

Systematic Desensitization

The most commonly used treatment for CA in adults has been "systematic desensitization."  This includes training in deep muscle relaxation, construction of anxiety-creating stimuli, and the graduated pairing, through imagery, of these anxiety stimuli with the relaxed state (Friedrich & Goss, 1984).

Visualization

Visualization is also an effective method used to deal with CA.  It uses a breathing exercise and asks participants to change any negative thoughts into positives ones by imagining they are having a positive public speaking experience (Blatzer, 1997).  Visualization is associated with lowering self-reported CA as well as increasing social attraction (Blatzer, 1997).

Peer Involvement

Rosenberg (1992) suggests peer involvement as a method to reduce CA in students.  Efforts may include involving shy students in cross-age tutoring programs, creating opportunities for them to play in pairs with younger children, enlisting peers as confederates to draw out withdrawn children, and involving them in small group, cooperative activities (Brophy, 1996).

Teacher Interventions

Brophy (1996) suggests teacher interventions.  In 1995 Brophy surveyed effective teachers to find out how they responded to shy students.  The most commonly mentioned responses included (1) changing the social environment (e.g., seating them among friendly classmates or assigning them to a partner or small group), (2) encouraging or shaping increased responsiveness, (3) minimizing stress or embarrassment, (4) engaging shy students in special activities, and (5) involving them in frequent private talks (Brophy, 1996).

Drinkwater & Vreken (1997) identify 7 measures which should be taken to reduce CA in classrooms:

1. Students should not be punished for communicating in classrooms.

2. Students, teachers as well as student teachers experiencing high levels of CA should be identified and helped to overcome this.

3. McCroskey (1977: 33) indicates that levels of CA increase if students are forced to speak in classrooms therefore this practice should be avoided.

4. Let students choose their seats in a classroom so that those with high levels of CA could sit where they feel safe.

5. Create a warm and supportive classroom climate, where students feel free to speak out and where they are allowed to make mistakes.

6. In teacher training particular attention should be paid to developing the communication skills of teachers to be, because of the fact that they are going to serve as role models for students.

7. The value of practical teaching should not be underestimated for it seems that the practical experience student teachers obtain help to reduce levels of CA.

COM Therapy (Communication Orientation Motivation)

Another form of therapy for reducing CA is COM Therapy (Communication Orientation Motivation).  This is a relatively new form of therapy designed to reduce anxiety in the area of public speaking (Daly, McCroskey, et al, 1997, p. 379).  In one-on-one counseling sessions or through printed material a trainer helps the speaker understand their own expectations that the audience will be evaluating them personally.  The aim is to reduce expectations that are unrealistic such as being extremely polished performers in order to gain the audiences approval (Daly, McCroskey, et al, 1997).  Helping the speaker change their own perception of the audiences focus - from speaker to the message will help take the spotlight off their own performance in their mind.  This reduces self-consciousness.

Methods to reduce fear of public speaking

Kurtus (2000) identifies 4 methods to overcome fear of public speaking:

1. Be well prepared in what you do before a group.  This is the best way to make sure no foolish mistakes are made.  You don't have to memorize everything just have a good outline prepared.  This will help you feel more relaxed and sure of yourself, because all your bases will be covered.

2. Have a backup, in case you forget what you want to say.  It is worthwhile to bring along a "security blanket" or "safety net" in case something goes wrong in your presentation.  For example, having your speech outlined on some sort of cards is a good backup in case you have a mental lapse.  Referring to your notes is certainly acceptable to refresh your memory.

3. Reduce fear of your audience.  Speaking to important people or dignitaries can create fear in a person.  This fear can be overcome by visualizing the people as not all that important.  One old trick is to imagine the audience is naked.  Or perhaps imagine them all in clown outfits.  A ridiculous image will make them seem not all that important.  Remember that they are just people and that they are there to hear what you have to say.

4. Practice, practice, practice.  Even if you know your material very well, practice is extremely important.  The more you give a talk, the more automatic it becomes, the more meat it can have, and the more confidence you have in your abilities to give the speech.  Practice alone, to small groups, to friends.  Practice.

"Simply realizing that CA is a frequent phenomenon that often occurs early in students' lives can be a spur toward eliminating many factors that contribute to a quiet child's withdrawal from communication" (Holbrook, 2000).

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References

Berko, Wolvin, & Wolvin (1998). Could not find source. p. 45.

Blatzer, Debby. (May, 1997) Communication Apprehension.  Paper presented at the 3rd Annual Student Research Conference, Governors State University, University Park, IL USA.

Bond, B. D. (1984) "Silent Incarceration." Contemporary Education 55: 95-101.

Bourhis, J., & Allen, M. (1992). Meta-analysis of the relationship between communication apprehension and cognitive performance. Communication Education. 41, 68-76.

Brophy, Jere. (November, 1996) Working with Shy or Withdrawn Students [Online]. EDO-PS-96-14. Available: www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/shy.k12.2.html

Daly, J.A., & McCroskey, J.C. (1984). Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Drinkwater, M., & Vreken, N. (1997). Communication Apprehension As fActor Influencing The Quality Of Life Of People [Online]. School of Teacher Education, Potchefstrom University for Christian Higher Education, Potchefstroom, RSA. Available: http://boleswa97.tripod.com/drinkwater_vreken.htm

Ericson, Philip M., & Gardner, John W. (1992, spring). Two longitudinal Studies of communication apprehension and its effects on college students' success.  Communication Quarterly, 40, (2) 127-137.

Fitzpatrick, M.A., & Vangelisti, A.L. (1995). Explaining family interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Friedman, P. G. (1980). "Shyness and Reticence in Students." Washington D.C.: National Education Association. Stock No. 1675-0-00. ED 181 520.

Friedman, G., & B. Goss, (1984) "Systematic Desensitization." In Avoiding Communication: Shyness, Reticence, And Communication Apprehension. J. A. Daly and J.C. McCroskey, eds. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Gilpin, Susan Brooke (gilpin2@MARSHALL.EDU). (1999, July 21). Communication Apprehension. E-mail to Karen McComas (address unknown).

Holbrook, Hilary Taylor. (1987). Communication Apprehension: The Quiet Student in YOur Classroom. ERIC Digest [Online]. Available: www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed284315.html

Hutchinson, K.L., & Neuliep, J.W. (1993). The influence of parent and peer modeling on the development of communication apprehension in elementary school children.  Communication Quarterly, 41, 16-25.

Kurtus, Ron. (January, 2000). Overcoming the Fear of Speaking to Groups [Online]. Available: www.school-for-champions.com.speaking/fear.htm

McCroskey, J.C. (1977a). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4, 75-96.

McCroskey, J.C. (1977b). Quiet children and the classroom teacher. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills.

McCroskey, J.C. (1978). Validity of the PRCA as an index of oral communication apprehension. Communication Monographs, 45, 192-203.

McCroskey, J.C. (1984). The communication apprehension perspective. (In Daly J.A., and McCroskey, J.C. (eds.) apprehension. Avoiding communication. Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. p. 13-38.))

McCroskey, J.C., Booth-Butterfield, Steven, & Payne, Steven K. (1989, spring). The impact of communication apprehension on college student retention and success. Communication Quarterly, 37, (2) 100-107.

McCroskey, J.C., Daly, J.A., Ayres, J., Hopf, T. & Ayres, D. (Eds.) (1997). 2nd Ed. Avoiding Communication, Shyness, Reticence, and Communication Apprehension. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.

Richmond, V.P. (1984). "Implications of Quietness: Some Facts and Speculations." In Avoiding Communication: Shyness, Reticence, And Communication Apprehension. J.A. Daly and J.C. McCroskey, eds. Beverly HIlls: Sage Publications.

Richmond, V.P., Beatty, M.J. & Dyba, P. (1985). Shyness and popularity: Children's views. Western Journal f Speech Communication, 49, 116-125.

Richmond, V.P., and McCroskey, J.C. (1989). Communication apprehension, avoidance and effectiveness. Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch Scarisbrick Publishers. 138 p.

Rosenberg, M., R. Wilson, L. Maheady, and P. Sindelar. (1992). Educating Students with Behavior Disorders. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Stacks, Don W. & Stone, John D. (1984). An examination of the effect of basic speech courses, self-concept, and self-disclosure on communication apprehension. Communication Education, 33, 317-331.

Standard Deviants TV. (date & author not found). All About Public Speaking [Online]. Available: wysiwyg://398/http://www.pbs.org/s...ddeviantsv/transcript_public.html

Watson, A.K., Monroe, E.E., & Atterstrom, H. (1984). American and Swedish children's apprehension about communication: A comparative study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59, 917-918.

Watson, Arden K. (1995) Taking the sweat out of communication anxiety. Personnel Journal, 74, (4), 111-117.

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By Adam Runey

Final Paper/Webpage
Class: Computer Mediated Communication (COM 450)
Professor: Lenny Shedletsky
Date: April 25, 2001

Author Info: Adam Runey, Communication major, University of Southern Maine, Portland, ME
E-mail: a_runey@yahoo.com